Lowie first used the term “means of acquiring a mate” in his book Primitive Society, first published in 1921. Later on, in the book An Introduction to Social Anthropology by D.N. Majumdar and T.N. Madan (1957), the same phrase was used. Since then it has become a pattern with the authors to carry forward this phrase.
However, Lowie used this terminology only to show the means whereby a mate is secured among the tribals. The legitimacy of the ‘means’ for acquiring a mate is a suspicious matter. For instance, a Bhil or a Gond may bring his wife by elopement, but the legitimacy given to this means is not of any high respect. Both the husband and wife in this case are considered to be debased.
Generalizations about primitive tribes are dangerous, but few exceptions will be found to the statement that matrimony with them is not so much a sacramental as a civil institution. However, there are two basic and popular forms of matrimony known as marriage by exchange and marriage by purchase. In both, a girl is treated as an asset which her family will not surrender without receiving adequate compensation.
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The common means of acquiring a mate is marriage by exchange. Among some tribals of the country a man is not only forbidden to marry his sister and other kin women, but is practically obliged to mate with a particular type of cousin or some more remote relative.
With this limitation exchange is commonly practiced. It should be mentioned here that compared with exchange marriage purchase has an exceedingly wide distribution.
However, there are several varieties of purchase. In some regions, a woman is, to all intents and purposes, a transferable and inheritable ‘commodity’; in others, there will be found only the appearance of purchase, since the bride-price offered is balanced by an equivalent gift or dowry.
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Here, we shall discuss some of the widely prevalent means of acquiring a mate among tribals:
(1) By Probation:
This form of marriage is found in some tribes of the heartland of the country, like the Kuki. In this the prospective spouses meet each other before actually entering into the marriage bond. This enables them to get know each other. The Kuki male goes to his beloved, stays there for some time.
They are also, by custom, allowed to have sexual relations. If they are agreeable to it, the marriage is contracted. But, if the probation period between the two is not happy, they part company and try elsewhere.
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However, during the probation period, if the girl conceives, the male is obliged to solemnize the marriage. Hoebel has an interesting observation on this means of acquiring a spouse.
Among the tribals bride-price is not so important as the fecundity of the wife to procreate children. If a woman is found to conceive within the least period, she is supposed to be a desirable wife.
(2) By Capture:
In a civilized society, marriage by capture is condemned. However, among Nagas, there are some sections who, even today, acquire their mate by capture. One variety of marriage by capture is that prevalent among the Kharia and Birhor tribes. When a man finds a suitable occasion like a fair, a weekly market or a public place, he applies sindur on the forehead of the woman he likes.
By this gesture, it is understood that the woman has been married publicly by the man. There is yet another variety among the Gonds. Marriage by capture is practiced where the parents of the girl approve of it.
The same is applicable to the Bhotias, a pastoral tribe living in the foothills of the Himalayas. But this kind of capture is known to the parents of both the girl and the boy in advance.
(3) By Trial:
This method of acquiring a mate is actually the trial of the physical strength of the boy. The girls in most of the tribal groups desire to marry boys who are full with vigour and power. This kind of marriage by trial is found among the Bhils of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh. The Bhils of Rajasthan, however, do not practice marriage by trial.
(4) By Purchase:
One very common practice of acquiring a wife is by purchase. We have discussed it earlier. Lowie, in his study of primitive society, has made certain observations. He mentions marriage by purchase being founcl among the Kirghiz, a turkish tribe of south-western Siberia, the Ho of Bihar, the Ewe tribe of Togo of West Africa, and the Kai of New Guinea.
In our country marriage by purchase is known as marriage by paying the bride-price especially among all the major tribal groups such as the Gond, Santhal, Chaudhara and Bhil. Earlier, the amount of bride-price was nominal. But, during the last one decade, it has gone up very high.
(5) By Elopement:
It is practiced where the arranged marriage is discarded. When one or both the parents object to the love marriage, the partners resort to marriage by elopement. This method is occasionally observed among Gonds, Bhils and Garasias of Rajasthan.
However, the bride-price is settled after the elopement when the spouses settle in their life. Among the Garasias of Rajasthan, the bride-price is realized even after a child is born.
(6) By Exchange:
There is a practice among the some tribes and even among the lower and intermediate castes to marry by exchange. It is a practice which saves a man from paying the bride-price. According to this, the brother gives his sister in marriage to another man and gets the latter’s sister as his wife.
In this case, there is no transaction of bride-price. This form of marriage thus saves both the families from any expenditure. In most of the Indian tribes, this means of acquiring a mate is sometimes practiced.
(7) By Intrusion:
Sometimes a girl forcefully intrudes into the house of the boy for whom she develops a liking. Sometimes gets insulted but continues to stay there till she is accepted as the daughter-in-law by the parents of the boy.
This method of intrusion is observed among the Ho, Kamar and Munda tribes. Even the tribals, who practice it, do not look upon it with favour and respect.
(8) By Service:
This method of acquiring a mate is rare. Evans-Pritchard, in his study of 241 tribal groups, found that only 30 observed it. In our country, the Bhils and Gonds occasionally observe marriage by service. When the parents of the boy cannot afford to pay the bride-price, the boy gives his services to the parents of the girl.
Wages for his service are negotiated and the amount accumulated on account of his service is transferred to the amount of bride-price. When there is final adjustment, the marriage is arranged.